Cod-liver oil was prescribed by British doctors in the eighteenth century for people suffering from bone disease and rheumatism. The Victorians used it for treating infections, nervous illness and skin diseases. The only thing that has changed is that today’s medical practitioners better understand just how it works.

Apart from being one of the richest sources of vitamins A and D, fish and fish- liver oils contain two polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have been found to reduce cholesterol levels and blood clotting, and so reduce the risk of heart disease and strokes. Fish oil concentrate can improve the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory disorders, including eczema and psoriasis. Its role in promoting growth, strong bones, well-behaved skin and resistance to infection is as accepted now as it was in Victorian times.

Fish oil supplements can be taken as oil or capsules and the addition of malt extract or orange syrup makes them acceptable to children’s taste.

Garlic

The bulb of this pungent plant is widely used to flavour meat, fish, vegetables and salads. It has also been valued for thousands of years as a medicine and antiseptic. It was highly prized for its medicinal qualities in ancient Greece and Egypt, and the Romans used it to treat coughs, colds, lung diseases and wounds.

More recently, the military rediscovered its healing properties and it was used on wounds during the First World War and at about the same time in hospitals for the treatment of tuberculosis. In the 1950s scientific proof backed all those years of faith in its properties when it was discovered that garlic contained allicin, which is a powerful antibacterial agent. Today it is helping us to cope with “modern” diseases. It has been found that garlic helps to lower high blood pressure and cholesterol levels, providing protection against the risk of strokes and heart disease. Garlic also stimulates the digestive system.

Used externally, there were many old country remedies based on garlic for digestive, bronchial, rheumatic and complexion problems. (A screwtopped jar filled with garlic cloves steeped for a week in boiled cider vinegar is reputed to produce a garlic vinegar that, when dabbed on spots, helps to clear them!)

If you do not like the taste or smell of garlic, you can buy capsules of deodorised garlic or coated tablets which still contain allicin, the potent part. The coating does not melt until the tablet is well on its way into the digestive system, thus reducing any risks of garlic-laden breath.

Oil of evening primrose

The oil extracted from the seeds of the evening primrose has hit the headlines in the past few years due to its apparent abilities to help in so many major and minor body breakdowns.

Native to Central America, where it was used for healing, the plant’s seeds found their way into ships’ cargoes in the eighteenth century and the plant became naturalised in Europe, growing wild in the countryside.

The seed oil is unique in that it contains substantial amounts of gammalinolenic acid (GLA), which is converted in the body to substances which help in the growth and reproduction of cells. GLA is produced in the body from dietary linoleic acid, but it seems that synthesis can sometimes be blocked or not sufficient for the body’s needs.

Avoid using processed foods except as an occasional source of convenience. Choose the freshest foods possible and eat as many salads, fresh vegetables and unrefined foods as you can. Make soups and casseroles when the weather is cold — it is not always psychologically pleasing to eat cold, damp food on a cold, damp day.

Plant some salad greens and vegetables in your garden if you have one. Many vegetables will grow in a small space and share the beds with flowers or grow up walls and fences. If you don’t have a garden, investigate bean and grain sprouting, which will take up only a small corner of the kitchen, be a good source of vitamins, and are fast and fun to grow.

* Shop daily for vegetables. If you cannot, store them in an airy, cool, dark place or in an air-tight container in the fridge.

Prepare vegetables just before you cook and eat them. Avoid peeling as vitamins and minerals congregate under the skin and the fibre is good for you. Because of chemical sprays and pesticides, always wash your fruit and vegetables thoroughly and if you have any choice in the matter opt for fruit and vegetables that have not been sprayed. Remove the peel after cooking if you must. Cook vegetables whole or cut in large pieces and keep leaves whole to avoid losing nutrients by exposure to air.

* Steam or pressure-cook when you can so the food is over rather than in the water. Otherwise use waterless pots or put vegetables into the minimum amount of boiling water and cook for the shortest possible time. Save the water for soups, casseroles and gravies or drink it straight. Never add bicarbonate of soda, which destroys vitamin C and thiamine. Add salt at the end of the cooking time if you insist on having it.

* Cook frozen vegetables straight from the freezer. If there is some delay, put them in a container while they wait so that the thawed liquid, which is full of vitamins, is added to the cooking pot.

* Copper and iron cooking utensils can destroy some vitamins. Choose stainless steel, glass or enamel. Serve food as soon as it is cooked. Keeping food warm destroys a lot of the nutrients.

Calcium

Good sources of calcium are dairy products, green vegetables, fish (particularly canned fish with softened bones), whole- grains and protein-enriched bread. It works with vitamin D to look after the health of bones, teeth, heart, muscles and the nervous system, and with vitamin A to keep skin healthy.

Chlorine

Good sources of chlorine are green leafy vegetables, tomatoes and salt. It is usually obtained with sodium and potassium, and is a major aid to digestive processes and the absorption of nutrients.

Cobalt

Good sources of cobalt are green leafy vegetables, fruit and wholegrains. Cobalt is a trace mineral that only functions as part of vitamin B12.

Copper

Good sources of copper are poultry, offal, shellfish, green leafy vegetables, whole- grains and nuts. Copper works with iron in the production of red blood cells. It is important for the health of muscle, skin and nerve fibres.

Fluorine

Good sources of fluorine are seafood, tea and some drinking water. Fluorine strengthens teeth and bones, and reduces the incidence of dental caries and possibly osteoporosis.

Iodine

Good sources of iodine are any food from the sea or food that is grown near the sea. Iodine is a trace element that is involved with the smooth functioning of the thyroid gland — the pacemaker for the metabolism.

Iron

Good sources of iron are meat, offal, shellfish, green vegetables, wholegrains, soya beans, potatoes, egg yolks and sunflower seeds. Iron works together with vitamin C and is involved in the formation of haemoglobin and transportation of oxygen to muscle tissue. Iron is lost during menstruation and childbirth, and supplements may be prescribed during pregnancy or if periods are excessively heavy.

Magnesium

Good sources of magnesium are green vegetables, seafood and pulses. It is present in most foods and is necessary for the metabolism of calcium and vitamin D. Magnesium is essential to life as it helps to keep muscles, bones, nerves and the heart functioning well.

Phosphorus

Good sources of phosphorus are most foods, especially dairy products, fish and wholegrains. Phosphorus is found in nearly every part of the body, and it is important for growth, maintenance of cells and all aspects of energy production and

Utilisation.

Potassium

Good sources are citrus fruits, pulses, potatoes, green leafy vegetables, seafood, tomatoes, avocados, bananas and dried fruits. (Also see sodium.)

Sodium

Good sources of sodium are salt and salted foods (bacon etc.), seafood and green vegetables. Sodium and potassium work together to regulate the fluid balance in the body.

Selenium

Good sources of selenium are offal, seafood, wholegrains and nuts. Selenium works with vitamin E to neutralise the effect of free radicals and retard the ageing process, and it increases the ability of white blood cells to resist infection.

Sulphur

Good sources of sulphur are dairy products, chicken, fish, meat, pulses and nuts. It is present in thiamine and biotin (B-complex vitamins) and in essential amino acids. It helps in the formation of body tissues and plays an important part in keeping skin in good order.

Zinc

Good sources of zinc are meat, whole- grains, milk, pulses and nuts. Zinc is vital for the metabolism of vitamin A. It has an essential role in the body’s enzyme systems, cell growth, tissue repair, gland functions, skin health, healing and the immune system.

Rich food sources of this crucial vitamin are cod-liver oil, halibut liver oil, liver, butter, cheese, eggs and milk. It can be taken as beta-carotene in carrots, green vegetables, tomatoes, asparagus, apricots, peaches and melons. Vitamin A is vital to your sight and is important if you want to see in the dark or if you work with video display units. It also helps to maintain healthy skin, bones and teeth, and builds resistance to infection. Deficiency can lead to dry, scaly skin, susceptibility to skin infections, rough “goose flesh” and night blindness. It is destroyed by light, high temperatures, and iron and copper pans.

Vitamin BI (thiamine)

A member of the vitamin B complex. Rich sources of this vitamin are yeast, wholegrains, meat, offal and green vegetables. Most foods contain some, but it is easily destroyed by heat and alkalies (e.g. baking powder), and lost when the water from thawed food is discarded. Vitamin Bi converts carbohydrate into energy in the muscles and nervous system. Deficiency can cause fatigue, nausea, muscle weakness and digestive problems. Requirements increase during pregnancy, when breast feeding or under stress. The elderly also need extra amounts.

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)

A member of the vitamin B complex. Rich sources of this vitamin are yeast, liver, wheatgerm, cheese, eggs, milk, green leafy vegetables and pulses. Vitamin B2 assists in the production and repair of body tissues. Deficiency leads to cracks and sores at the corners of the mouth, scaly skin, itchy eyes, hair loss and mouth ulcers. An increased supply may be needed by drinkers, smokers and women on the contraceptive pill.

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)

A member of the vitamin B complex. Rich sources of this vitamin are yeast, whole- grains, nuts, meat, fish, potatoes, green leafy and root vegetables, eggs, bananas and dried fruits. Vitamin B6 is the antidepressant vitamin and helps to regulate the nervous system. It may be used to treat premenstrual syndrome, morning sickness, travel sickness and depression induced by the Pill. Deficiency may lead to skin complaints, mild depression, premenstrual problems, convulsions and heart problems.

Vitamin R12 (cobalamin)

A member of the vitamin B complex. Rich sources of this vitamin are offal, meat, fish, eggs, poultry, cheese, yoghurt and milk. Vitamin Bit is an essential element in normal cell division, maintaining the energy reserve in muscles, and nerve fibre insulation. Deficiency in B I2 can lead to nervous and menstrual disorders, and severe deficiency can lead to pernicious anaemia. Animal sources mean vegans can have problems, but it is now possible to obtain B12 from a non-animal mould fermentation (enquire at your local health shop or chemist).

Biotin

A member of the vitamin B complex. Rich sources of this vitamin are yeast, offal, eggs, wholegrains, fish, meat, milk, cheese and yoghurt. (Biotin is also produced by intestinal bacteria.) Biotin is involved in many metabolic processes and is essential for maintenance of healthy skin, hair, and the regulation of the sex hormones.

Folic acid

A member of the vitamin B complex. Rich sources of this vitamin are yeast, whole- grains, nuts, offal, citrus fruits, eggs, fish, green leaf and root vegetables, cheese, meat, milk and pulses. Folic acid is essential for protein synthesis and production of normal red blood cells. Deficiency can lead to megaloblastic anaemia where blood cells change shape and size and have a shorter life span. It functions with vitamin Bit in blood formation.

Niacin

A member of the vitamin B complex. Rich sources of this vitamin are yeast, whole- grains, chicken, nuts, liver, fish, cheese, eggs and pulses. Niacin assists in the break-down and utilisation of fats, protein and carbohydrates. It helps maintain a healthy brain, nerves, skin and digestive organs. Severe deficiency is responsible for pellagra (Italian for rough skin), which progresses from dermatitis, diarrhoea and dementia to death.

Pantothenic acid

A member of the vitamin B complex. Rich sources of this vitamin are yeast, offal, nuts, wholegrains, meat, eggs, poultry, pulses, leaf and root vegetables, cheese, yoghurt and fruits. Pantothenic acid is known as the anti-stress vitamin because it promotes a healthy nervous system. It may reduce the adverse effects of antibiotics. It has been used therapeutically to decrease allergic skin reactions in children and to relieve morning stiffness in arthritis.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

Rich sources of this vitamin are most fruits and vegetables. Vitamin C plays a strong part in the manufacture of collagen, strong capillaries and resistance to bacterial and viral diseases. It helps any type of wound- healing process. Deficiency leads to slow healing, bruising, bleeding gums, weakness and lassitude. Great deficiency leads to scurvy, the scourge of old-time sailors, who suffered from this disease until the discovery that it could be prevented by taking fruit and vegetables on long voyages. Vitamin C is easily lost in cooking. More will be needed after injury, during infection, when taking antibiotics, by the elderly, athletes, smokers, alcohol drinkers and women on the Pill.

Vitamin D

Rich sources of this vitamin are cod-liver oil, oily fish, tinned fish — salmon, mackerel, sardines and tuna — dairy products and eggs. Significant amounts are produced by sunlight on the skin. Vitamin D has a prime role in bone formation. Deficiency leads to rickets and osteomalacia (an adult form of rickets), which are both characterised by softening of the bones. Toxicity has been found when doses of 10 000 units were taken daily over a long period of time. As 400 units is the recommended daily limit without prescription, there is little likelihood of running into any trouble.

Vitamin E

Rich sources of this vitamin are vegetable and fish oils, shellfish, liver, brown rice, potatoes, most fruits and vegetables. Vitamin E is an anti-blood-clotting agent. It strengthens capillary walls, neutralises the effect of harmful free radicals, counteracts premature ageing and helps form new skin. Increased intakes have been found helpful in aiding healing after burns and reducing menopausal symptoms such as flushing, depression and panic attacks. It is used also for circulatory problems. Deficiency of vitamin E can cause premature ageing, lack of vitality and disinterest in physical and sexual activity.

Several epidemiological research studies, using large population samples, have shown that people who consume a diet rich in omega- 3 oils from either fish or vegetable sources, have a significantly reduced risk for developing heart disease.

Gamma-linolenic acid is another fatty acid with therapeutic properties. It’s often effective in treating inflammatory diseases such as asthma, arthritis, allergies, dermatitis and eczema. GLA supplementation (such as evening primrose and starflower oil capsules) has a 90% success rate in helping to reduce the symptoms of premenstrual disorders like breast pain, bloating, depression and irritation.

DHA is a highly unsaturated omega-3 fatty acid that’s particularly important for developing infants and pregnant and nursing women. Growing babies depend on receiving DHA from their mothers, through the placenta before birth and through breast milk after birth. Many mothers have low DHA intakes, however. Researchers believe that by increasing DHA intake before and during pregnancy and breastfeeding, foetal growth and development will be supported, while simultaneously improving the general health and wellbeing of both mother and child.

Why do we need essential fatty acids?

A: EFAs form an important part of all the cell membranes, which protect cells from attack by foreign invaders such as viruses and bacteria. They also allow nutrients to enter the cells and waste products to leave.

EFAs are also important precursors in the synthesis of prostaglandins, hormone-like substances found in all cells, which are responsible for a myriad functions on the cellular level and regulate many body processes like circulatory, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and immune function.

A diet deficient in EFAs will cause a gradual deterioration in cellular function, leading to the development of numerous health problems like arthritis, poor vision and dry skin.

Why do we need to take essential fatty acids as supplements?

Earlier generations ate a diet rich in both the omega-3 and omega- 6 range of fatty acids, but today’s typical Western diet contains mainly omega-6 fatty acids (in the form of linoleic acid), with very small quantities of the omega-3 fatty acids. Modern food processing also destroys a lot of the essential fatty acids. The imbalance between omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids places a physiological burden on the human body that the species hasn’t yet had time to adapt to and prepare for through genetic modification. It is thus important to supplement the daily diet with GLA (a further step in the omega-6 conversion), as well as alpha-linolenic, eicosapentanoic and docosahexanoic acids (further steps in the omega-3 conversion). For sufficient quantities of EPA and DHA, you’d need to eat fish, such as salmon, at least three to four times a week.

Both Omega 3 and 6 fats can be found in flax, hemp and pumpkin seeds. When you eat these, the body converts the fats they contain into their more active forms — for Omega 3, these are called EPA, DPA and DHA; for Omega 6, it’s GLA. You can also find these active forms in certain foods. Oily fish such as anchovies, salmon, sardines and mackerel contain the active Omega 3 fats EPA, DPA and DHA. These are a better source than relying on flax seeds or pumpkin seeds. This is because only about 5 per cent of what’s in flax seeds is converted into EPA, and even less into DHA, which is literally what your brain is built from. So it’s best to both eat oily fish, flax and pumpkin seeds and to supplement Omega 3-rich fish oils. Oils of evening primrose and borage contain the active Omega 6 fat GLA.

Most of us need daily sources of both the original essential fats and their more active forms. Eating fresh nuts and seeds plus oily fish will provide a good balance. If deficiency symptoms such as dry skin or hormonal issues continue to be an issue, add in some extra plant oils such as borage via a daily supplement.

The best fats for cooking

Polyunsaturated oils such as seed oils or even sunflower oils are not a good choice for cooking because they are easily damaged when heated, creating harmful molecules called oxidants. The best type of oil to cook with is the more stable monounsaturated variety — of which olive oil is the best source.

Coconut oil is an even better option because despite being a saturated fat, its chemical structure is slightly different to other saturated cooking fats such as butter or lard (meat fat), and the body is therefore better able to utilise it — for energy, rather than turning it into body fat.

Avoid harmful fats

As we’ve established, eating a lot of meat or dairy produce provides too much saturated fats, so red meat and hard cheese are best limited to no more than three to four portions a week.

Processed or refined vegetables oils can also be bad for you because this can change the nature of the oil. For example, when making margarine, vegetable oils go through a process called hydrogenation to make them hard so you can spread rather than pour them. Hydrogenated fats confuse the body and block the uptake of other healthy polyunsaturated fats, so they are best avoided. Sources include some margarines and many processed foods, so check ingredients lists on labels carefully.

Frying is another way to damage otherwise healthy oils. This then damages your body when you eat fried, browned or burnt foods — so these are best kept to a minimum. Instead of frying, steam-fry foods.

Overall, fat — mostly the essential variety from oily fish, nuts and seeds — should make up about one-fifth to a quarter, or around 20 to 25 per cent, of your total calorie intake. Since there’s twice as many calories in a gram of fat than a gram of protein or carbohydrate, this will look like one- eighth of what you eat. You can achieve this by following the guidelines below.

Fat: optimum nutrition guidelines

Eat seeds and nuts — the best seeds are flax, hemp, pumpkin, sunflower and sesame. You get more goodness out of them by grinding them first and sprinkling them on cereal, soups and salads.

Eat oily fish — a serving of anchovies, sardines, mackerel or salmon two or three times a week provides a good source of Omega 3 fats.

Use seed oils — choose a cold-pressed oil blend for salad dressings and other cold uses, such as drizzling on vegetables instead of butter.

Minimise your intake of fried food, processed food and saturated fat from meat and dairy produce.

Which is why the UK government encourages us all to have at least ‘five a day’ I recommend seven a day, for example fruit with breakfast and two fruit snacks, and two servings of veg, making up half of what’s on your plate, with each main meal.

So far, more than a hundred different phytochemicals have been identified and more are being discovered all the time. Some you may be familiar with — for example lycopene in tomatoes helps to prevent cancer

But there are many others which also act to protect your body from the damage of day-to-day life, support a healthy immune system or help to stabilise hormones. Here are some examples:

Allium compounds— these are found in garlic, onions, leeks, chives and shallots and have been found to have protective effects against cancer and heart disease, and also to help lower cholesterol and homocysteine and thin the blood.

Anthocyanidins and proanthocyanidins— these are particularly rich in berries, cherries and grapes and are reputedly healing for gout and certain types of arthritis.

Bioflavonoids— as well as being potent antioxidants, these substances enhance the beneficial actions of Vitamin C, can be antibacterial and strengthen blood vessels (e.g. to help prevent varicose veins or bleeding gums). The best food sources are citrus fruit, berries, broccoli, cherries, grapes, papaya, cantaloupe melon, plums and tomatoes. Red grapes are also rich in resveratrol, one of the most potent antioxidants, concentrated in red wine.

Carotenoids— as the name implies, carotenoids are rich in carrots, but they are also rich in other fruit and vegetables including sweet potato, watercress and peas. They help to slow down the ageing process.

Chlorophyll— this is the substance that makes green plants green. Chlorophyll-rich foods like wheat grass, seaweeds and green vegetables help to `build’ the blood and have been shown to help protect against cancer, radiation, germs and help heal wounds.

Curcumin— this is especially high in turmeric, the yellow spice in curry powder, which is a potent antioxidant and pain-killer.

Ellagic acid— present in strawberries, grapes and raspberries, ellagic acid neutralises cancer-causing toxins before they can damage cells.

Glucosinolates — these are one of the most important anti-cancer and liver-friendly nutrients found in food. Evidence suggests food sources — such as tenderstem broccoli and Brussels sprouts — can reduce risk for lung cancer, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer and probably breast cancer.

Lutein — this is a powerful antioxidant found in many fruit and vegetables and is particularly beneficial for maintaining healthy eyesight. The best sources are green leafy vegetables such as cabbage, spinach, broccoli, cauliflower and kale.

Quercitin — this powerful anti-inflammatory agent is particularly rich in red onions and berries, especially cranberries and strawberries, as well as apples — and can be very effective at easing the symptoms of hayfever, eczema and asthma as well as improving the health of blood vessels and connective tissues. Onions and garlic also help to boost the body’s glutathione levels, a potent anti-ageing antioxidant.

These are just a fraction of the phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables. As you may have noticed, the different compounds are commonly related to different colours — anti-ageing carotenoids predominantly in orange and yellow foods, blood-building chlorophyll in green leafy vegetables, anti-inflammatory quercetin in blue and red berries and cancer-killing glucosinolates in crunchy green vegetables. Bright yellow spices such as turmeric and mustard are also excellent natural anti-inflammatories, reducing pain and swelling.

To get the best balance of nutrients and phytochemicals in your diet, aim to eat a rainbow-coloured selection of at least six different fruits and vegetables every day.

— involved in every body process in every cell, every second of every day

— is chemically reactive. It becomes easily unstable and capable of ‘oxidising’ neighbouring molecules, which can damage cells and trigger ageing, inflammation and even diseases such as cancer.

Unstable oxygen molecules — called ‘oxidants’ or ‘free radicals’ — are also present in pollutants (e.g. from industrial processes, cigarette smoke or exhaust fumes) and in fried, burnt and/or barbecued foods.

The good news is the body has an inbuilt repair system, but this needs particular nutrients to power the antioxidant enzymes that disarm the oxidants. The main players are Vitamins A, C, E and betacarotene, the precursor of Vitamin A that is found in fruit and vegetables, plus the minerals zinc and selenium. But you also need the antioxidant nutrients called coenzyme Q10, alpha-lipoic acid, glutathione and resveratrol, the secret ingredient in red wine, for maximum antioxidant protection.

The balance between your intake of antioxidants and your exposure to oxidants may literally be the balance between life and death. You can tip the scales in your favour by making simple changes to your diet and by supplementing antioxidant nutrients。

A basic supplement programme (multi, Vitamin C and essential fats).

• To support thyroid, a formula containing tyrosine, iodine, zinc and selenium.
• To relieve a whole range of hormonal symptoms, look for a formula which contains extra Vitamin C, zinc, isoflavones, extra B vitamins and a nutrient called DIM rich in broccoli.
• To aid hormone balance during the menopause, extra Vitamin C (lg a day) in a formula which also contains bioflavonoids.
• For vaginal dryness in the menopause, extra Vitamin E (600mg a day).
• To relieve menopausal symptoms, especially hot flushes, Agnus Castus (20-40mg a day).

To boost immune function, consider:

• A basic supplement programme (multi, Vitamin C and essential fats).
• 2-4g of Vitamin C a day in total and extra while fighting an infection.
• A daily antioxidant supplement containing at least 1500mcgRE of Vitamin A, 25mg of glutathione (reduced), 200mg of Vitamin E, 10mg of co-enzyme Q10, 10mg of alpha-lipoic acid, 50mg of anthocyanidins, 50mcg of selenium and 10mg of zinc.
• During an infection, consider a daily formula with berry extracts, especially black elderberry extract (at least 100mg) and ginger. Some Vitamin C formulas contain these.
• A daily probiotic supplement.

To improve mood, memory and concentration consider:

• A basic supplement programme (multi, Vitamin C and essential fats).
• To improve memory, supplement extra B vitamins (at least 50mg of B5), TMG (100mg twice a day) with phospholipids phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidyl-serine and DMAE in a combination formula.
• To boost low mood, supplement 100mg of 5-HTP twice a day. Also take 2000mg of Omega 3 fish oil (providing 1000mg of EPA).
• To boost poor drive and motivation, supplement 500mg of tyrosine twice a day, ideally in a formula containing adaptogenic herbs such as Asian, American and Siberian ginseng, and reishi mushroom extract and B vitamins.